DREIESKIVA​|Roald Kvam

Sigmund Freud’s Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) is one of his most influential works, exploring the tensions between individual desires and societal expectations. In this text, Freud expands upon his theories of the psyche, repression, and the inherent conflict between the human instinct for pleasure and the constraints imposed by civilization.

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The central conflict: Individual vs. civilization

Freud begins by examining how civilization arises and why it inevitably conflicts with individual desires. He argues that human beings have instinctual drives—especially those related to aggression and sexuality—that often contradict the demands of a structured society. Civilization, according to Freud, seeks to curb these instincts to maintain order and cohesion, but this repression leads to widespread dissatisfaction.

He highlights how civilization is built upon the suppression of these primal urges, requiring individuals to conform to societal norms. Laws, moral codes, and cultural expectations are all instruments that regulate human behavior, ensuring that individuals act in ways that benefit the collective rather than their own immediate gratification. However, this necessary control generates an underlying sense of unhappiness, as individuals must suppress their desires to fit within the framework of social expectations.

The role of the super-ego and guilt

A significant portion of Freud’s argument revolves around the concept of the super-ego, which acts as an internalized authority, absorbing the prohibitions of society. As civilization advances, individuals internalize its restrictions, creating a powerful force of guilt and self-repression. The super-ego not only enforces the restrictions of civilization but also generates feelings of guilt and inferiority when individuals fail to meet its stringent demands.

Freud suggests that as societies become more complex and moral standards more rigid, people experience an increase in guilt. This guilt, he posits, may not always be conscious, but it manifests in feelings of anxiety and dissatisfaction. He draws upon his earlier theories of the id, ego, and super-ego, illustrating how the id (instinctual drives) and the super-ego (moral conscience) remain in constant opposition, with the ego struggling to mediate between the two.

The pleasure principle vs. The reality principle

Freud revisits one of his fundamental psychoanalytic theories: the pleasure principle versus the reality principle. The pleasure principle drives individuals to seek immediate gratification and avoid pain, but in a civilized society, this is rarely possible. Instead, the reality principle forces individuals to defer or suppress their desires in favor of long-term stability and social harmony.

He acknowledges that civilization does offer compensatory pleasures, such as intellectual and artistic achievements, which serve as sublimated outlets for repressed desires. However, he argues that these substitutes never fully satisfy the primal instincts, leaving people with an underlying sense of discontent.

The death drive and the aggressive instinct

One of Freud’s most provocative claims in Civilization and Its Discontents is the introduction of the death drive (Thanatos) as a fundamental component of human nature. In contrast to the life instincts (Eros), which drive individuals toward creativity, love, and preservation, the death drive represents a subconscious pull toward destruction, aggression, and ultimately, self-annihilation.

Freud argues that this death drive is one of the greatest threats to civilization. Since society requires cooperation and order, it must constantly find ways to mitigate humanity’s innate aggression. Religion, moral systems, and laws all serve to contain and redirect this destructive energy. Yet, he notes that these efforts are never entirely successful, as evidenced by war, crime, and acts of cruelty that persist despite civilization’s best attempts to suppress them.

Religion as a coping mechanism

Freud critiques religion as a societal tool used to manage human dissatisfaction. He views religious belief as an illusion that provides comfort in the face of the suffering imposed by civilization. By promoting ideas of divine justice, an afterlife, and moral absolutes, religion helps individuals cope with the sacrifices they must make for the sake of society.

However, Freud is skeptical of religion’s long-term effectiveness. He argues that as rationality and scientific thought progress, religious faith may weaken, leaving individuals even more exposed to the tensions between their desires and societal demands. Without the comforting illusions provided by religion, civilization may struggle to maintain its control over human instincts.

Love and its limitations

Freud explores the idea of love as both a unifying and problematic force within civilization. He distinguishes between sensual love (which is tied to sexual gratification) and aim-inhibited love (such as friendship or familial bonds). While love can serve as a way to form social connections and lessen aggression, Freud argues that it is not a sufficient solution to the fundamental problems of civilization.

He critiques the Christian commandment to «love thy neighbor,» arguing that it is unnatural and ultimately unrealistic. Freud asserts that human beings are inherently selective in their affections, making universal love an impractical ideal. Furthermore, he points out that love often breeds jealousy, possessiveness, and conflict, further complicating its role as a means of social harmony.

The illusion of progress

Freud remains pessimistic about the idea that civilization is progressing toward a state of greater happiness. While technological advancements and cultural achievements may give the impression of progress, they do not fundamentally resolve the conflict between individual instincts and societal demands.

He warns that as civilization becomes more advanced, its demands for conformity and repression may increase, leading to even greater discontent. He acknowledges that while some degree of repression is necessary for a functioning society, excessive restriction can lead to neurosis and widespread dissatisfaction.

Conclusion: The Unavoidable Discontent

In the final analysis, Freud asserts that civilization will always be a source of suffering for individuals. The sacrifices required to maintain social order inevitably clash with human desires, creating an enduring tension that cannot be fully resolved. While civilization provides structure, security, and the possibility of higher achievements, it does so at the cost of individual freedom and instinctual gratification.

Freud’s work remains deeply influential because it challenges the optimistic view that civilization necessarily leads to greater happiness. Instead, he presents a more complex and tragic view of human nature, in which the very mechanisms that enable society to function also create profound discontent. Civilization and Its Discontents thus serves as a sobering reflection on the psychological costs of progress and the inescapable struggles of the human condition.